12. 1 0 obj (1996) utilised an entirely new label for PSE. In order to assist clinicians in assessing change in PSE and researchers in planning interventions, the current systematic review sought to update and extend current knowledge of PSE measures, completed by parents of children from birth to 18 years of age, by (a) providing detailed information on the psychometric and administrative properties of each identified measure, (b) stating the PSE domain being assessed, (c) clarifying terminology and (d) reviewing the theoretical grounding of each measure. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. All scores are presented in Table1 but should be used as a guide only. Child Development, 67(6), 32783295. emotional benefits, personal development) and negative aspects of parenthood (e.g. Understanding Your Child's WISC-V Scores - Resources By HEROES Moran, T. E., Polanin, J. R., Evenson, A. L., Troutman, B. R., & Franklin, C. L. (2016). % The Parent Domain score of the PSI was a better predictor of these variables than was the Child Domain. New York: Human Sciences Press. Bot et al. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122147. (1997). 0000001357 00000 n Journal of Nursing Measurement, 10(2), 97110. (2010) examined 28 measures of parenting confidence, which they used as an umbrella term to capture measures of self-efficacy (perceived by parents of infants to 12 year olds) that had been labelled in other ways (e.g., as sense of competence, self-definition or self-agency). Sethi, Gandhi, and Anand (2012) also translated the PSS into Hindi for use in a study in which Indian parents/carers of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were compared to Indian parents/carers of children without a clinical diagnosis. The problem appears to stem from the use of double negatives, which may be harder to process in the Spanish language. Dumka, L. E., Prost, J., & Barrera Jr, M. (2002). (1997). The target population must also be involved in item selection as well as experts. Journal of Adolescent Research, 10(2), 278-290. ADHD rating scales | ADHD institute 2008) for parents of infants (0 to 12 months), the SEPTI-TS (22/36) (van Rijen et al. From Abidin (1995) The original norm group consisted of 2,633 mothers aged 16-61 (M=30.9) and their children aged 1 month to 12 years (M=4.9, SD=3.1). Our review prioritised accurate terminology, theoretical grounding in SCT and the administrative and psychometric properties of the available measures but some limitations have to be considered. PDF About the BASCTM-3 Item analysis Item analysis was done using the method suggested by Edwards (1969). ]tR2r?^V\}b0h95pIZFe*TF[Cn*z\(^hIrm]; 4E5m~fDY> ,5sTsh>H^ZLBZ*("Od3N1%l}Q'D7Uu(j>/g-]=p'ZC =(rQ_ 75'hLf5Uu2VbToL#= ~3kaDk~[2] WP>a$"+[yrD lJEE!"7m{9H`R%yTH^cN`=KTi;T#Xr~?'OuY}e6 h'MT%+F**Uk|O}p c.LIdAVi.K(ZYXGfJUbmgzR*`#K]Wo~2$A" eqs^IONSdl;M9nO*$6Kf,d-AYw5rRh-ph;1>tCTXp+T}FGB|FUq@C'_wts\={\@v-*^Nv3 $*v\}@~>&H doi:10.1080/01460860390246687. W4n1S!\j Children's Obsessional Compulsive Inventory - BetterMind Software The PSI has been used in numerous studies of adolescent mothers. PedsQL Parent report 8-12 yrs; Scoring and interpretation. The section seg- (2020) also reported positive correlations between the PSS and the Parenting Stress Index IV Short form. Add to Favorites. If the design or method of testing this property is doubtful (e.g., if no hypotheses are made with interpretations only made post-hoc) then the measure scores 1. The PSS was developed by Judy Berry and Warren Jones (1995) and can be used to assess outcomes of interventions designed to support parenting efficacy of mothers, fathers and/or carers of children across a wide age range. We are not currently aware of any evidence regarding the accessibility of this measure for adults with learning disabilities. The PS was originally developed as a rating scale to measure dysfunctional discipline practices in parents of preschool-aged children (18 to 48 months of age) and can be used to identify 'mistakes' that may contribute to ineffectual efforts to discipline young children (Blair Irvine et al, 1999). doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01580.x. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(2), 126148. Multiple studies have shown correlations between PSI scores and Child Abuse Potential Inventory Scores (e.g., Holden, Willis, & Foltz, 1989, Rodriguez & Green, 1997). The interpretation provides a variety of plausible treatment recommendations for a family based upon the ratings . (1988), n=23, parents of children with ADD who got Ritalin dosages. Australian Psychologist, 49(4), 241252. doi:10.1002/nur.4770160209. The parent expectations survey a measure of perceived self-efficacy. Campis, L. K., Lyman, R. D., & Prentice-Dunn, S. (1986). For life stress items, reporters indicate whether the events have occurred (Yes/No) in the past 12 months. stream Authorisation from the copyright owner should be gained before incorporating the PSS into any electronic system. Ethnic variations in personal social networks and parenting. 2014). Factor analysis suggests a 3- factor solution best fit the data with Parent, Child, and Parent-Child Interaction factors. Berry & Jones (1995) reported high correlations between the PSS and the Perceived Stress Scale in a US sample. 2002). Useful in designing a treatment plan, for setting priorities for intervention or for follow-up evaluation. Responses are scored as follows: Strongly disagree = 1 Disagree = 2 Undecided = 3 Agree = 4 Strongly agree = 5. Research in Nursing & Health, 21(3), 199210. (1995). Paradoxically, there is a great deal of consistent research on the consequences of PSE (as summarised in Coleman and Karraker 2000), indicating that greater levels of PSE have beneficial and therapeutic consequences for individuals. 8. They had higher scores on all domains and subscales except Sense of Competence and Attachment. Normative data were also collected from 200 fathers aged 18-65 (M=32.1, SD=6.01) Ethnic group composition was approximately 95% White and 5% African-American. 2016). Self-efficacy and parenting of high-risk infants: The moderating role of parent knowledge of infant development. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. PDF The Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire: a - Core In contrast, far less attention has been paid to the assessment of reliability, MCID, responsiveness and criterion validity. 0000054116 00000 n It is very widely used self-report instrument and taps into both positive and negative aspects of the parent-child relationship. Hudson, D. B., Campbell-Grossman, C., Ofe Fleck, M., Elek, S. M., & Shipman, A. The items are all task-specific, age-specific and situation-specific. would not be plotted and no interpretation would be attempted. 0000002319 00000 n http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/3640352. The total score for the scale had to be generated by summing items, the measure needed to use a visual analogue scale or the formula used to compute total score had to be a simple one (e.g., reversal of specific items) for a score of 3. Academy of Management Review, 17(2), 183211. Parental efficacy and successful parent involvement. summing the points for the four items on each scale, a total raw score ranging from 0 to 12 is created. rnec, R., Barnett, B., & Matthey, S. (2010). In addition, incorrect terminology was noted in measures that included an incorrect concept within their title. ASRS (2-5 Years) Parent Interpretive Report for abc Admin Date: 08/18 . Scaled scores are a type of exam score. If the design and method by which this property has been assessed is doubtful, the measure scores 1. As the C-G PSS and Parental Self-Agency Measure (PSAM, Dumka et al. Lacharit, C., thier, L.S., & Couture, G. (1999). doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01914.x. Only two measures (5.88%) (BaM-13 and KPCS) offered this information, obtaining the maximum score. (2010), these measures are more sensitive to the tasks undertaken by parents of a child with a specific age. Published in 1998 as a collaboration between the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Kaiser Permanente, the original ACE study was one of the first studies to look at the . 1. the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale - Parent Version in a clinical sample. 2014) and the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC, Johnston and Mash 1989). Sample's T score on this composite scale falls in the At-Risk classification range. The second sample was recruited from the community. This may be due to many measures including items that were linked to performance on specific tasks, which encourages an all-or-none estimation of efficacy. McDowell, I., & Jenkinson, C. (1996). Choose the answers that best describe the child over the past week Scores produced Obsession subtotal Comulsion subtotal CY-BOCS total Interpretation (Total score) 0-7 subclinical 8-15 Mild 16-23 Moderate %PDF-1.5 Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 32(4), 599-605. <>/ExtGState<>/XObject<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI] >>/MediaBox[ 0 0 595.32 841.92] /Contents 4 0 R/Group<>/Tabs/S/StructParents 0>> ,Y''q 00pO %)4R 0000001456 00000 n (1996). Total Score and DSM-5 Scale Ratings on the Total Score scale indicate the extent to which the youth's behavioral characteristics are similar to the behaviors of youth diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. (2004). 19,20,21,22,23 Higher scores indicate worse parent adjustment 0-15 Family relationships 24,25,26,27 Higher scores indicate worse family relationships 0-12 Parental }RTM(-'eCKO._)})RBU; .nOkq? If there is no target population involvement in item selection but other criteria are met, then the measure scores 2. 0000007482 00000 n The number of items ranged from three to 82 (m=26.74, SD=18.15). Education: 48% college graduates, 20% vocational training or some college, 23% high school graduates, and 9% less than 12 years of education. The Conners' Parent Rating Scale - Revised (CPRS-R) is the parent form of the Conners' Rating Scales - Revised (CRS-R). Infant Mental Health Journal, 37, 222234. With regards to the theoretical underpinnings of a measure, it is possible that measure authors simply stated they were referring to a particular theory without providing any further empirical support. These remember your preferences and help us understand how visitors interact with our website. Acton, R.G., & During, S.M. Terwee et al. 1998). (1996). Note:Adapted from Self-Efficacy: A Theoretical Analysis of its Determinants and Malleability by M. E. Gist, and T. R. Mitchell, 1992, Academy of Management Review, 17(2). Finally, narrow-domain focuses on one specific aspect of the parenting role, such as breastfeeding (Dennis and Faux 1999) or childbirth (Lowe 1993). Article The search strategy and its results are described in Fig. Their response to social persuasion (e.g., encouragement or praise from others cultivates self-efficacy, whereas criticism reduces it) and 4. Scores of 4 or 5 on performance questions reflect problems in performance. I will be using these STAR Reading test scores to help Matthew further develop his reading skills through the selection of books for reading practice at school. Tam, Chan, & Wong (1994) examined the psychometrics of the PSI with 2 samples of Chinese mothers in Hong Kong. Ready to register for Wellbeing Measurement for Schools? If the MIC is greater than or equal to the SDC, or MIC equals or is inside the LOA, despite adequate design and method, the measure scores 2. Review of scales of parenting confidence. )O~Yo>\uK4s3e\/^}T^UpV%GU6r*nWXUfE*7+7"Vvk*GM/\butiM8]_[=`RR> fcC$iV4G-6RlS$OW\JPe/]Z5)hQ {KoYMz/)>YLnP((}_; 2008; Tucker et al. The differences in concepts may be subtle, but they are important to consider because the correct terminology will ensure accuracy and consistency. (2018). . Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25, 31733191. A score of 2 is not assigned for this property. 0000005508 00000 n The earliest year of publication was restricted to 1970 to account for advances in PSE knowledge. PDF Scoring Key for the Parenting and Family Adjustment Scales (PAFAS) For more detailed information about the cookies we use and how they work, please see our Cookies Policy: https://www.corc.uk.net/privacy-policy/, Collecting and Improving the Quality of Mental Health Data, Using outcome and experience measures remotely, Questionnaires you can fill in electronically, Feedback and outcome measures for children and young people with learning disabilities. 1 0 obj All valid scales will be reported and the invalid scales will be identified with an asterisk. New York, NY: W.H. PDF Scoring Instructions for NICHQ Vanderbilt Assessment Scales - UW Medicine emotional benefits, personal development) and negative aspects of parenthood (e.g. Chan, Y.C. (2010) review of all available data on a measure and their examination of particular aspects, such as the provision of normative data. Description of Measure: Screening and triage measure for evaluating the parenting system and identifying issues that may lead to problems in the child's or parent's behavior. <>6&v&' lBzf>R3W`a)c*([ttt48@v Dennis, C.-L., & Faux, S. (1999). Biological parents scored significantly higher than did foster parents on total stress (Pithers, Gray, Busconi, & Houchens, 1998). <> (2006). 0000002757 00000 n Hutcheson, J.J., & Black, M.M. Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Proficiency Level Scores provide an interpretation of scale scores. Many of the measures also identified part of the assessment prior to forming PSE: Analysis of task requirements (n=9), attributional analysis of experience (n=15) and/or assessment of personal and situation resources/constraints (n=19). Score interpretations are presented directly on the Parenting Profile. Their review was the first of its kind and evoked public and clinical interest. %PDF-1.4 % doi:10.5465/AMR.1992.4279530. Kendall, S., & Bloomfield, L. (2005). Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25(4), 423437. L.M., Sanderson, J., & Mertin, P. (1999). Parenting self-efficacy (PSE) can be defined as the caregivers or parents confidence about their ability to successfully raise children (Jones and Prinz 2005). The current review found some evidence that the terminology used within the literature is inconsistent. Bigras, M., La Freniere, P.J., & Dumas, J.E. Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives. endstream endobj 18 0 obj <> endobj 19 0 obj <>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]>>/Rotate 0/TrimBox[0.0 0.0 612.0 792.0]/Type/Page>> endobj 20 0 obj <>stream Using the Parent scas T-Scores The parent version of the SCAS is intended to provide an indicator of the number and severity of anxiety symptoms. On both parent and teacher initial scales, the symptom assessment screens A score of 0 is given for no information on agreement. PSI scores correctly classified 62.2% of the mothers as abusive or nonabusive. A slightly modified version of the PSI (items 59 and 60 slightly modified to suit the Hong Kong context) was used. Please register your use of the measure with the author and copyright owner: Judy O. Berry, EdD, Professor Emerita of Psychology, The University of Tulsa:judy-berry@utulsa.edu. Raw scores are calculated directly from the mother's responses to the questions. PloS one, 13(11), e0205662. Reliability and validity of the test supports that parenting stress is a measure that is useful across diverse populations, including Hispanic, poor rural and inner-city parents. Therefore, every measure that is grounded in at least one of three assessments also offers an estimation of PSE. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2005.00487.x. 'gUM:[ If the design or method for ascertaining floor or ceiling effects is doubtful, the measure scores 1. In contrast, the 18 measures with the highest possible score of 3 were in articles in which the primary aim was an investigation into the psychometric properties of a measure. Research and Theory for Nursing Practice, 3(3), 199211. The test is easy to administer, moderately easy to score, and moderately difficult to interpret based on the clinician's experience and interpretation guidelines in the manual. Maternal confidence for labor: Development of the childbirth selfefficacy inventory. Morawska, A., Sanders, M. R., Haslam, D., Filus, A., & Fletcher, R. (2014). endobj Specificity using total scores was 79%; using subscales it was 75.3%. Instructions: All 30 items are scored on a 7 point scale, with low scores indicating good parenting and high scores indicating dysfunctional parenting. Child Development, 62(5), 918929. Charlottesville, Virginia: Pediatric Psychology Press. Mothering behavior and maternal role attainment during the postpartum period. demands on resources, feelings of stress). PDF Circle: PRE SCORING KEY PARENTING SCALEPOST For provider use only. Twelve measures achieved a rating of 3, offering details of how one can assign qualitative meaning to scores (35.29%). 1986). Coleman, P. K., & Karraker, K. H. (2000). Scoring the Generic Core Scales. However, these measures were scored by similar methods and therefore all of these measures score obtained the maximum score. ~WjV5vg ]-L==~u x! Based on the pilot, it was determined that most mothers completed the measure in 20-30 minutes and that it was understandable to those who had at least a 5th-grade education. (2014). Interpretation. The KPCS obtained the highest score of 28, while the MSPC obtained the lowest score of 1. D5{awpQ_~UQ]~D/yhAxVORJB?k_mmp)V1c5I12 ~>Zl>ha (2013). The PSS is in the public domain, and can be used free of charge in both pen/pencil form as well as digitally/remotely (see below for an editable PDF version). <> Broader measures that had a subscale of self-efficacy were not included unless the relevant subscale was validated independently (e.g., the Child Adjustment and Parenting Efficacy Scale; CAPES-SE, Morawska et al. Summary and Interpretation . interpretation of T-scores shouldbe done cautiously with non-English versions, as research is still underway on these instruments. The frequency of measures that were retrospectively described by Gist and Mitchells (1992) theoretical approach to self-efficacy. For a maximum score of 3 authors had to have tested readability using at least one of: (a) the Flesch Kinaid Reading Ease; (b) Flesch Kincaid Grade Level; (c) Gunning Fog Score; (d) Coleman Liau Index, or (e) Automated Readability Index. While each program has its own entrance requirements, an FSIQ of 115 - 129 is generally considered "mildly gifted," an FSIQ of 130 - 144 is generally . Perceived parental efficacy: Concept analysis. A score of 2 or 3 on a single symptom question reflects an . PDF Revised Children's Anxiety and Depression Scale Developmental Review, 18(1), 4785. Self-efficacy and parenting: Findings and future applications. Reliability coefficients for the two domains and the Total Stress scale were .96 or greater, indicating a high degree of internal consistency for these measures. Firstly, there is an assessment of task requirements, which encourages reflections on the skills needed so that the task can be completed successfully. NSCS Profile An additional separate concept is parenting satisfaction: a subjective rating of contentment derived from being a parent, which influences PSE (Coleman and Karraker 2000; Rogers and White 1998). (2007). Seashore, M. J., Leifer, A. D., Barnett, C. R., & Leiderman, P. H. (1973). doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03479.x. 22 37 Hamilton, V. E., Matthews, J. M., & Crawford, S. B. Journal of Affective Disorders, 128(1), 142152. Target Audience(s): Parents of children 6-18 and children 6-18 . doi:10.1007/s10826-014-0089-z. x\[o:~/ 4( 4.>8NWVD>&ow~p)bVoiX^K!U++)beK$ Mothers perceptions of their competence in managing selected parenting tasks. Many measures were instead developed for a range of ages. Nixon, R.D.V., Sweeney, L., Erickson, D.B., & Touyz, S.W. 9. endstream endobj 34 0 obj <> endobj 35 0 obj <>stream For example, rnec et al. The above ratings were coded so that a + achieved a score of 3, achieved a score of 2, ? achieved a score of 1 and 0 achieved a score of 0. Gist and Mitchell (1992) suggest that an analysis of task requirements is only necessary when the task is novel or has not been attempted. 2 0 obj For a score of 3, reliability agreement should be assessed (test-retest or split-half) AND the authors should present one or more of the following: the limits of agreement (LOA), Kappa, Standard Error of Measurement (SEM), evidence that the minimal important change (MIC) is less than the smallest detectable change (SDC), or that the MIC is outside the LOA, or some other convincing argument that agreement is acceptable. Barnes, C. R., & AdamsonMacedo, E. N. (2007). Abidin, R. R. (1983).Parenting Stress Index manual. Mothers birthplace included: Puerto Rico (29%), Dominican Republic (22%), United States, (21%), Ecuador, (12%), and other Spanish-speaking countries (16%). Teti, D. M., & Gelfand, D. M. (1991). Abidin, R. A. Overall, the two domains as factors accounted for 58% of the variance. Journal of Family issues, 22(8), 944972. The use of more appropriate measures, sensitive to gender differences, strengthen research findings around paternal PSE (e.g., Hudson et al. It was noticeable that of the 18 measures demonstrating excellent content validity, all 18 were reported in studies of psychometric properties. Characteristics of the kansas parental satisfaction scale among two samples of married parents. If fewer than 75% of hypotheses made are confirmed, despite adequate design or method, then the measure scores 2. high in control, he is categorized as authoritarian parent. Inner-city parents under economic pressure: Perspectives on the strategies of parenting. If the criteria for FA are met and Cronbachs alpha(s) calculated but they fall outside of the acceptable range (despite adequate design and method), then a score of 2 is given. The current review demonstrates that adequate PSE-specific measures with good psychometric and administrative properties exist. Sanders, M. R., & Woolley, M. (2005). (2010) alongside 16 additional measures. Broussard, E. R., & Hartner, M. S. S. (1970). To our knowledge no study has been published regarding the suitability of the measure across different ethnic or linguistic groups. Expanded norms organized by each year of child age. Lacharit, thier, & Couture (1999) examined the sensitivity and specificity of the PSI in a sample of 81 maltreating (44.3% neglect, 14.7% abuse, and 41% neglect and abuse) and 81 nonmaltreating mothers of low socioeconomic status. Parenting Satisfaction . (2003). Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 17(1), 14-24. Sfx$d(is Additionally, references of retrieved articles were screened for additional relevant studies. Discriminant validity of the parent and child scales of the Parenting Stress Index. endstream endobj 32 0 obj <> endobj 33 0 obj <>stream Only ten of the measures (29.41%) offered information on floor and ceiling effects. One measure, the Assessment of Parenting Tool (APT, Moran et al. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales | Third Edition - Pearson Assessments The Parenting Scale: A measure of dysfunctional parenting in discipline The presenters will describe and review the Comprehensive Interview, Parent/Caregiver Form and . Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22(910), 14871494. A., Tennant, C., & Saunders, D. (1997). 4 0 obj If a task has been performed before, the individual is likely to rely on their interpretation of previous performance (attributional analysis of experience). Clinical Psychology Review, 25(3), 341363. Domain general measures refer to functioning within one area of daily life, but do not specify the tasks or activities within which they must be performed (e.g., I know good parenting tips that I can share with others. Freiberg et al. Matthew's ZPD 2000 is 361-561. Experiencing parental stress is common among parents of children of all ages and is elevated in families characterized by stressors such as poverty, mental health problems, and developmental problems. It is not designed to be a diagnostic instrument for use in isolation although it provides important information to inform the assessment process. Maternal confidence in toddlerhood: Its measurement for clinical practice and research. 0000005241 00000 n Longitudinal and qualitative studies and those focussing on a narrow-domain were also excluded. Principal components analysis with a varimax rotation for a 2-factor solution (replicating procedures used with the original sample) did not result in a clean solution, and a 3-factor solution was identified based on the scree test and interpretability of the factors. Does engaging in a group-based intervention increase parental self-efficacy in parents of preschool children? authors sense the need for a scale of parenting scale in the easternparenting practices and cultural context. Helps identify at-risk or problem areas in the child's or parent's behavior. Email: corc@annafreud.org. 2016) assessed both domain-specific and domain-general self-efficacy, and two measures, the C-G PSS and the BAP, assessed general self-efficacy. Maternal perception of the neonate as related to development. . Public Health Nursing, 21(2), 111-121. Bagner, D.M., & Eyberg, S.M. Despite this continued interest in PSE, to date there has been only one review of parenting confidence measures. Degree to which the questionnaire actually measures the specific trait or attribute it is intended to measure. PDF ACEs Resource Packet: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Basics Please do get in touch at CORC@annafreud.org if you are aware of any information that may be of interest to users of the PSS as we may be able to update our webpage to include it. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004. Twelve measures obtained scores placing them in the lowest quarter, with the MSPC obtaining the lowest score. Scientific Advisory Committee of the Medical Outcomes Trust. If there was no information about scoring, then the measure obtained a score of 0. 1). Scale Percentile Classification Interpretive Guideline T-score . doi:10.1111/j.1552-6909.1987.tb01456.x. The Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale 25-Parent - PubMed 29. The relationship between maternal selfefficacy and parenting practices: Implications for parent training. Information for the Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale (CAPES) and C-G PSS suggested that readability and comprehension levels were adequate (these measures scored 3), whereas the MCQ and PCS referred to readability and comprehension but did not offer sufficient detail to warrant a score of more than 1. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2), 164180. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association, Toronto. Development and Utility of the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale. The mean number of children living in the home was 2.1 (SD = 1.2). Measures were included only if it was considered by the authors (on reviewing the scale content) that their primary focus was on self-efficacy but they could also assess other related constructs (competence, esteem, confidence, satisfaction, self-regulation). Rutledge, D. L., & Pridham, K. F. (1987). doi:10.1006/drev.1997.0. 0000003696 00000 n If the method for combining items to generate an overall score was unclear, then the scale scored 1.